Keywords
Climate tools, Climate smart agriculture, Adaptation, Mitigation, Small scale agriculture, Agricultural development
This article is included in the AgriKnowledge gateway.
Agricultural producers in developing countries are uniquely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and have the least ability to adapt. While there is a growing consensus that more financing and resources are needed to address these impacts, information on how to direct funding and support adaptation is dispersed and difficult to find. Agricultural development stakeholders and investors can leverage increasingly available data from a range of online sources to inform their climate smart agriculture investments, but it is not always clear which data tools are easily accessible and which can support different aspects of their programs.
This analysis aims to inform stakeholders how different tools can inform their climate smart investments. Hundreds of interactive tools were reviewed from multiple sources and a set of criteria was developed to simplify and elucidate the landscape of resources available that support adaptation and GHG mitigation for agricultural producers in low-income countries. The search strategy included a literature review, discussions with key stakeholders, and a review of existing databases of tools (e.g., NDC Partnership Toolbox).
Ultimately 29 tools were identified and compared in terms of how they address both climate risk, adaptation, and mitigation. The data sources behind the tools were also compared, and illustrative user groups were identified. Many valuable, easy-to-use tools exist offering non-climate experts’ opportunities to gain insights into the relationship between climate and small-scale farming systems. However, the tools available are insufficient and should not be relied upon exclusively for informing investments.
This review provides a valuable resource for those looking to inform investments and programming in small-scale agriculture. This set of tools can provide insights that can be leveraged in various ways for a wide range of users, but they also have considerable limitations. This review can help users understand how these tools can be useful and the types of additional context-specific and local information that should be sought.
Climate tools, Climate smart agriculture, Adaptation, Mitigation, Small scale agriculture, Agricultural development
Small-scale agricultural producers are at ground zero for experiencing the impacts of climate change. Their livelihoods are based on producing crops that are being directly impacted by climate change, which is expected to continue to follow new and increasingly unpredictable patterns in the coming decades. As temperatures rise, precipitation becomes more variable, and extreme weather events become more frequent, small-scale producers in tropical regions in particular are expected to experience the impacts of these stressors most acutely (Aragón et al., 2021; Morton, 2007). Small-scale producers are considered especially vulnerable as they have generally low incomes and rely predominantly on agriculture for their livelihoods (Rosenzweig & Hillel, 2008).
In addition to being a uniquely vulnerable sector, agriculture is uniquely suited to concurrently advancing both mitigation and resilience goals (Cohn et al., 2017). Indeed, the agricultural sector remains the largest economic sector and employer in low-income countries and is often the largest source of emissions (FAO, 2012). Due to this important role, even though countries are not required specifically report on agriculture in their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), 90% of NDCs mention agriculture and 41% mention food security, and it is a priority sector for climate action (Schulte et al., 2020). At the United Nations 28th annual Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in 2023 (commonly known as COP28), the Declaration on Sustainable Agriculture, Resilient Food Systems, and Climate Action recognizes these multiple roles and was signed by 159 countries.
In light of these needs, the international community has called for ramping up climate financing to help agricultural producers to confront climate change mitigation and adaptation, but so far, the funding is a tiny fraction of climate financial flows and has been deemed wildly insufficient compared to the needs, especially in reaching small-scale producers (Chiriac et al., 2023; Macquarie et al., 2020). There are growing climate finance opportunities, but project proponents and funders need data and tools to support the design and prioritization process. Policy and planning tasks for NDCs, national, subnational, and sectoral climate action plans and policies also require support of these resources.
The term “climate-smart agriculture (CSA)” has been adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and other organizations to describe an approach “that helps guide actions to transform agri-food systems towards green and climate resilient practices… It aims to tackle three main objectives: sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; adapting and building resilience to climate change; and reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emissions, where possible” (FAO, 2013; Lipper et al., 2014).
In recent years, there has been a proliferation of data and tools to help address climate-smart agriculture and inform decision-makers on topics at the intersection of climate and production agriculture in low-resource settings. The tools have many intended audiences and purposes, such as resilience or adaptation, mitigation, productivity, sustainability, and more; and many cover combinations of these climate and livelihood related goals. The Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) Partnership has collected and categorized thousands of tools, guidance documents, platforms, and other resources related to climate action. There are 81 items in the NDC Partnership’s Climate Toolbox labeled as relevant to agriculture (NDC Partnership, 2023).
Agriculture is a highly site- and context-specific sector. Weather, soil, water, local technology, management practices, and knowledge vary significantly from one farm to the next. This makes the design of tools that are useful for a broad range of agricultural practitioners and investors especially challenging. This variability and complexity limit the capability of tools to inform the implementation of projects that benefit a wide range of producers. Nonetheless, collectively these tools can shed light on the relationship between climate and farming systems. Using the right tools can allow practitioners to screen for climate risks and quickly identify potential solutions and where more analysis may be needed.
Previous research efforts have shed light on existing climate and agriculture tools, as well as screening processes that leverage tools alongside qualitative inputs and steps. Brown (2017) documented and catalogued the climate screening processes and tools that major international agricultural funders implement, including the World Bank, United States Agency for International Development (USAID), UK Department for International Development, African Development Bank, the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, and the Green Climate Fund (Brown, 2017). Separately, Douxchamps reviewed tools specifically designed for monitoring and evaluating climate resilience in agricultural development, with a specific focus on indicators and methods of measurement (Douxchamps et al., 2017). Lastly, Neset reviewed map-based tools that support climate change adaptation and are freely accessible on the web; however, this review did not focus on developing country-specific contexts, and it only considered tools related to adaptation to climate change (Neset et al., 2016).
In this review, the objective is to analyze climate-smart agricultural tools and create a fit-for-purpose categorization that can benefit decision-makers focused on small-scale producers in low-income contexts and help the research community better coordinate their efforts and build on existing tools. The focus is on interactive and accessible tools because these are the most available and convenient for a wide variety of users. Each tool addresses different aspects of climate-smart agriculture as it relates farming in low-resource settings. The purpose of this review is to lay out which tools are relevant for which purposes, enabling users to more quickly access tools that are useful to them. The review also seeks to highlight key limitations of available tools, including their underlying data gaps and use cases where the tools alone are insufficient in answering practitioners’ questions.
Given the many available tools available, and the many disparate uses of each tool, clear and targeted inclusion/exclusion criteria, a search strategy, and comparable classifications were needed to guide the analysis.
a) Inclusion/exclusion criteria for tools:
Multiple selection criteria were used to set boundaries for the analysis. Each tool reviewed would need to meet all four selection criteria to be included:
1. The tool addresses the intersection between climate and the food system. This includes tools related to climate impacts, adaptation, or mitigation and intersection anywhere along the food value chain (from producer to consumer) or with food market systems. Tools that focus only on the intersection between the food system and non-climate environmental issues – or tools that focus only on climate and non-food systems – are not included. For example, several tools were found to provide in depth analysis and projection of climate impacts but lacked any information on agriculture (e.g., the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Working Group I (WGI) Interactive Atlas tool); tools like this were not included in the results.
2. The tool is interactive. This includes any software, web-based explorer, or other digital feature that is designed for external users to interact with it in some way. This does not include screening or process guides, static narratives, or even interactive reports or story maps. It would also not include raw data related to climate or agriculture. This meant excluding guidance documents, frameworks, country profiles, policy documents, and other useful source materials for analyzing and implementing climate smart agriculture.
3. The tool explicitly targets at least two developing country contexts. For tools to be included, they must be applicable to small-scale producer contexts. Although there are small-scale producers in every country, small scale producers are generally more prevalent in low and low-middle income countries. As many countries and other developers have undertaken efforts to produce country-specific tools, only tools covering at least two countries, thus serving a broader audience, were included in this review. Several tools that centered around agriculture and climate but focused only on higher income countries (or were too general to apply practically to developing country contexts) were excluded; we used the World Bank income level classification to discern which countries are considered low income or low-middle income (Hamadeh et al., 2022).
4. The tool is readily accessible. Any tool or resource that requires more than a free sign-up are excluded from this analysis. In addition to being free, it must be accessible to a general audience. For example, Winrock’s Agriculture, Forestry and other Land Use (AFOLU) calculator was excluded because it is only available to implementers of USAID projects. Some climate models and tools were excluded because they were deemed to require too much expertise to be useful to a practitioner. Multiple tools were excluded that required familiarity with geospatial or statistical data and software including ArcGIS or the General Algebraic Modeling System (GAMS).
b) Search strategy:
Several methods were employed to identify relevant climate and agricultural tools. Publication databases were searched since 2015 using the following keywords: “Climate; Review OR Systematic Review; Risk(s); Tool OR Tools OR Toolbox; Agriculture OR Food security; Screening OR Screen; Decisions OR decision-making; Mitigation OR adaptation OR vulnerability; Africa OR Asia OR South America OR Latin America OR low-income country(ies)”.
Other sources included in the initial search were used or identified through consultation with experts working in the climate adaptation and agriculture space. These included any tools mentioned in conversations between authors and development agencies, funders, and international organizations that were aware of relevant tools being used by practitioners. Finally, toolboxes and resource repositories of institutions such as the World Bank, FAO, and the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) system were searched for relevant tools. The most extensive toolbox used was created by NDC Partnership and profiled climate sources as they relate to nationally determined contributions. The NDC Partnership Climate Toolbox is a database of platforms, guidance documents, and advisory support to help countries plan their NDCs; all tools in this database that were relevant to agriculture were reviewed (NDC Partnership Climate Toolbox, 2023).
Once all sources were compiled, a modified snowball approach was used to search for relevant tools in affiliated publications, organizations, and projects from these initial sources. For instance, organizations such as the World Bank, FAO, CGIAR, and the University of Wageningen were identified as potential sources, and the websites of these organizations were scanned for relevant tools. From scanning literature, research organizations’ toolboxes and platforms, and expert input, over 900 total sources were identified and considered. The NDC toolbox housed several of the tools identified, but many tools were excluded from the results of this effort as they did not meet the inclusion criteria.
The search that was conducted, though extensive and far reaching, is non-exhaustive. There are simply too many tools that have been developed by too many developers to ensure that all are being captured. Additionally, some subjectivity was used in determining whether a tool met any specific criteria.
c) Tool characterization criteria:
Once the tools were filtered to a shortlist, they were characterized according to multiple criteria that were considered comparable across tools and conducive to analysis. Note that although clear criteria were identified, the characterization was subjective based on the authors’ review of each tool. See Table 1 for detailed information on criteria used for characterization of the tools.
Characterization criteria for tools | |
---|---|
Description | A simple paragraph of 2-3 sentences was used to describe what the tool does and its purpose. These descriptions are in the words of the authors of this review unless otherwise stated. |
Use cases | Tools were classified according to what primary and secondary questions they might help answer. These questions reflect the concerns of potential users that would be addressed by the tool. |
Intended user | Five archetypes or groups were identified to shed light on which tools were more appropriate for which kind of users. The five archetypes were “Sustainable sourcing manager”; “Implementing partner activity lead”; “Agricultural development funder”; “Agricultural policy maker”; and “Agricultural researcher”. Each group was listed in order of relevance to the tool. |
Risk Relevance (exposure, hazards, vulnerability, adaptive capacity, adaptive solutions adaptive response) | Climate risk is a function of exposure, hazards, and vulnerability, and response (Lavell et al., 2012). Tools that focused on climate risk were reviewed for whether they addressed exposure, hazards, and vulnerability, and adaptive responses. Tools were also reviewed according to the degree to which they identified adaptive capacities (e.g., factors that may allow people to adjust or respond to potential risks) and adaptive solutions including actions people could take to mitigate risk). |
Mitigation relevance | Tools that addressed GHG mitigation were classified according to what aspect of mitigation they were focused on (e.g., emission profiles, mitigation options) |
Crops | Many tools identify or provide data on specific crops. Where crops were specifically considered by the tool they were identified. |
Scale | Tools were categorized according to their geographical specificity, ranging from global, national, sub- national, to field level. “Sub-national” is meant to capture any geographical level that is considered larger than the field level but smaller than national level. |
Outputs | Many tools simply allowed users to explore data on maps, but others provided GHG emission data, land use indicators, or other metrics. |
Ease of use | Interactive tools generally fit three categories: simple, moderate and complex. Simple typically refers to: “point and click” types of tools where you can turn on and off layers and scroll on a mapping interface. Moderate typically refers to “plug and play” type of tools where you have to enter some information but typically not an extensive amount. A complex categorization was used when the analysis was more of a “detailed, deep dive” that required significant data inputs from the user or some training to use the tool. Tools classified as simple are likely to be more easily navigated and digested, while moderate tools would take more time depending on how much project level data was available. Generally, a greater investment of time is needed as the user moves from a simple to complex tool. |
Lastly, a binary yes or no classification was used for whether each tool provided historical data, future projections, data source documentation, methodology documentation, or evidence of recent updates (>2020).
For tools that include climate impacts, data sources used by each tool were reviewed. Often, tools use data produced or sourced by the publishing institution, and many tools used various data sources that were not used by other tools characterized in this review. However, where underlying data was used by more than one tool characterized herein, these common data were identified in the results in order to shed light on the most common sources of land use, socioeconomic, and climate data that are used by these tools.
Based on careful consideration of the tools’ apparent intended users (sometimes explicitly cited on the website), or who the tools could provide valuable information to, five user archetypes were created: Implementing Partner, Agricultural Development Funder, Agricultural Policy Maker, Sustainable Sourcing Manager, and Agricultural Researcher. For further description of each of these user groups, see Table 2. Tools were also characterized by how they relate to climate change based on whether they incorporate climate risk (exposure, hazard, vulnerability) or measure mitigation potential (Table 3).
Key Term | Definitions (IPCC, 2022) and Examples |
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Hazard | A hazard is “the potential occurrence of a natural or human-induced physical event or trend that may cause loss of life, injury, or other health impacts, as well as damage and loss to property, infrastructure, livelihoods, service provision, ecosystems, and environmental resources.” Indicators representing hazards included propensity for natural disasters, including storms, flooding, drought, extreme heat, and other climate-related drivers of potential destruction or harm. |
Exposure | Exposure is “presence of people; livelihoods; species or ecosystems; environmental functions, services, and resources; infrastructure; or economic, social, or cultural assets in places and settings that could be adversely affected.” Examples of indicators representing exposure in the tools include area under cropland production, yield of specific crops or livestock, or population densities in a geography. |
Vulnerability (+ adaptive capacity) | Vulnerability is the “propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected”. Vulnerability encompasses a variety of concepts and elements, including sensitivity or susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt. Indicators assessing vulnerability can relate to human capital (e.g., literacy or education rates) or biophysical factors (e.g., soil quality). Other indicators that reflect vulnerability are access to goods and services such as access to banking, broadband, markets, or health facilities. Indicators that reflect adaptive capacity are also included in this category as adaptive capacity is the positive side of vulnerability (e.g., low access to broadband is vulnerability; high access is adaptive capacity). |
Adaptive Response | The IPCC has a more expansive definition of “responses” that include biophysical and natural responses of climate change; for simplicity this study narrows responses to human adaptive responses, which is meant to capture human intervention to facilitate adaptation. Adaptive solutions include specific measures (e.g., using climate smart crops or livestock breeds, introducing buffers to prevent soil and water erosion). Some adaptive solutions are captured at the national level in tools such as ClimateWatch, others are more specifically linked to crop and livestock production system exposure, hazards, and vulnerabilities, as found in CRISP. |
A total of 29 tools were identified that met the criteria (see Table 4). Ten were from the NDC Toolbox, ten from the snowball approach, and nine from expert consultations. Out of 29 tools, 20 considered at least one aspect of risk (i.e., exposure, hazard, vulnerability), 11 were focused on climate mitigation, and three tools included aspects of both mitigation and risk (the CSA Programming and Indicator Tool, the Climate Risk Toolbox, and ClimateWatch).
Name of Tool | Website | Author(s) |
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Agricultural Adaptation (AgriAdapt) Tool | https://www.agriadapt.org/ | WRI |
Climate Impact Viewer | https://a-plat.nies.go.jp/ap-plat/asia_pacific/index.html | Asia-Pacific Climate Change Adaptation Information Platform |
Climate Analysis Indicators Tool—CAIT 2.0 (Climate Watch) | https://www.wri.org/our-work/project/cait-climate-data-explorer | WRI |
Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) Mitigation Option Tool | https://ccafs.cgiar.org/resources/tools/ccafs-mot-mitigation-options-tool-agriculture | LEDS Global Partnership |
Cool Farm Tool | https://coolfarmtool.org/ | Cool Farm Alliance, Sustainable Food Lab |
Ex-Ante Carbon-balance Tool (EX-ACT) (includes EX-ACT VC) | https://www.fao.org/in-action/epic/ex-act-tool/en/ | FAO |
Land-use Planner | https://landuseplanner.org/ | EU REDD Facility |
EarthMap | https://earthmap.org/ | OpenForis |
Resilience Atlas | https://www.resilienceatlas.org/ | Conservation International |
The Global Livestock Environmental Assessment Model interactive (GLEAM-i) | https://gleami.apps.fao.org/ | FAO, International Finance Corporation, World Bank |
AgMIP Global Gridded Crop Model Intercomparison Project (GGCMI) | https://agmipimpactsexplorer.wenr.wur.nl/ggcmi-maps | University of Wageningen |
AgMIP IFPRI Impacts viewer | https://agmipimpactsexplorer.wenr.wur.nl/ifpri-impact-viewer | University of Wageningen |
Climate Change Knowledge Portal | https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/ | World Bank |
EX-Ante Carbon-balance Tool for value chains (EX-ACT VC) | https://www.fao.org/in-action/epic/ex-act-tool/suite-of-tools/ex-act-vc/en/ | FAO |
Aqueduct (including Aqueduct Food) | https://www.wri.org/aqueduct | WRI |
Agricultural Adaptation Atlas | https://adaptationatlas.cgiar.org | CGIAR |
Carbon Benefits Project | https://cbp.nrel.colostate.edu/ | UNEP |
Climate Risk Toolbox | https://data.apps.fao.org/crtb/ | FAO |
CSA Programming and Indicator Tool | https://ccafs.cgiar.org/resources/tools/csa-programming-and-indicator-tool | CGIAR |
Global Information and Early Warning System on Food and Agriculture | https://www.fao.org/giews/earthobservation/index.jsp | FAO |
Trase Supply Chains | https://supplychains.trase.earth/ | Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI), Global Canopy |
Global Agricultural & Disaster Assessment System (GADAS) | https://geo.fas.usda.gov/GADAS/index.html | USDA |
Agro-Chain Greenhouse Gas Emissions (ACE) calculator | https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/106161 | CGIAR |
FLW Value Calculator | https://www.flwprotocol.org/why-measure/food-loss-and-waste-value-calculator/ | Quantis |
Climate Impact Explorer | https://climate-impact-explorer.climateanalytics.org/ | Climate Analytics |
CRISP | https://crisp.cgiar.org/ | CGIAR |
Food Systems Dashboard | https://www.foodsystemsdashboard.org/ | The Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition |
RegioCrop | https://regiocrop.climateanalytics.org/choices | Climate Analytics |
Climate Vulnerability Monitor – Biophysical Data Explorer | https://climatevulnerabilitymonitor.org/biophysical/ | V-20 |
Climate risk: Within the climate risk category, most of the 20 tools included functionality to assess an agricultural-related exposure (e.g., maize yield) to an explicitly climate-driven hazard (e.g., increased temperature or more variable precipitation). Under this category, map-based “simple” tools were the most common type. This type of tool enables users to explore the relationships between climate-related hazards such as temperature, precipitation, extreme weather events, floods, and water scarcity against agricultural-related exposures such as land use, cropland coverage (often by type of crop), or productivity. Examples of lighter touch, simple tools include Resilience Atlas, the World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal, and Agricultural Model Intercomparison and Improvement Project (AgMIP) International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) Impacts Viewer. Of these 20 climate risk tools, 15 also provided functionality to assess vulnerability and adaptive capacity, but only four tools provided any way to assess or compare adaptive solutions. Adaptive capacity and vulnerability data generally took the form of socioeconomic data such as income or poverty levels, food security, education levels, or access to beneficial services, as well as biophysical adaptive capacity, e.g., soil quality. Some example tools are AgriAdapt, Climate Vulnerability Monitor, Resilience Atlas, Food Systems Dashboard, Agriculture Adaptation Atlas, Climate Risk Toolbox, Global Agricultural & Disaster Assessment System, and CSA Programming and Indicator Tool.
Tools addressing adaptive solutions generally are more qualitative and help users understand the relationships between environment, activity, and potential outcomes. The five tools that offered users the ability to explore adaptive solutions were the Agriculture Adaptation Atlas, CSA Programming and Indicator Tool, ClimateWatch, the “Climate Risk Planning & Managing Tools for Development Programmes in Agrifood Systems” (CRISP), and RegioCrop (Table 5). These are relatively new tools that have been designed precisely to offer solutions; they also allow users to download relevant data for more detailed or bespoke analyses.
Climate mitigation: For the 11 tools focused on climate mitigation, most (eight) allowed users to examine the GHG impacts of field-level interventions (Table 5). Other tools had a variety of different foci. For example, one tool each examined emissions at the national level (ClimateWatch); in a commodity supply chain; from a particular food product (ACE Calculator); and related to food loss and waste (FLW Value Calculator). These tools generally require more input data for analysis than simple tools but produce quantifiable impacts on GHG emissions and sometimes also yields, food security metrics, or biodiversity outcomes. For these tools to be informative, they typically require more detailed input data and knowledge of specific geographies, farming practices, and/or business management practices.
No tools attempted to address both risks and mitigation in a robust, holistic, or integrated way. The only tool that addressed both mitigation and adaptation was a CSA programming and indicator toolbox, intended to support monitoring, learning, and evaluation types of activities rather than to support agricultural decision-making directly.
Private sector supply chains and/or value chains: A topic that cut across climate risk and climate mitigation is related to tools designed to address commercial agricultural supply chains for specific crops or livestock products. Most of the tools categorized as climate risk also have the capability of providing insights on the vulnerability of crops in commercial supply chains. Two tools that explicitly address this functionality and provide user stories to showcase this usage are World Resources Institute (WRI)’s Aqueduct and AgriAdapt tools. The former has numerous examples of how companies have used the tool to help them better understand how climate-related water risks may play into sourcing decisions (WRI Aqueduct User Stories, 2023). The latter is calibrated to understand risks to specific supply chains, including Colombian coffee, Indian paddy rice, and Indian cotton.
There are six mitigation focused tools that explicitly address how private sector actors can incorporate GHG emission tradeoffs into their planning. These include the Cool Farm Tool, EX-Ante Carbon-balance Tool for Value Chains (EX-ACT VC), Agro-Chain Greenhouse Gas Emissions (ACE) calculator, Food Loss and Waste (FLW) Value Calculator, Trase Supply Chains, and the Global Livestock Environmental Assessment Model (GLEAM). They each have different commodity and value chain orientation and relevance, but each share the functionality of being able to estimate GHG emissions along a value chain as long as the user provides the right inputs. More detailed tools might require input data such as livestock head, feed type composition, soil or water management practices, fertilizer use, days of cultivation of crops, area of land use or land use change, etc.
Commonly used datasets to spatially explore risk: Tools that use data from externally produced data products rely on a limited number of sources for climate, crop, and socioeconomic data. Any data sources that were referenced in more than one risk tool are highlighted in Table 6. Most of these underlying datasets are trusted sources of widely available data used to spatially depict or model key metrics or variables representing exposure, hazard, or vulnerability. Tools that included external sources primarily used agricultural production data from FAO or IFPRI, socioeconomic data from the World Bank or USAID, and climate and environment data from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), CLIMate ADAptation (CLIMADA), and the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISMIP).
User groups: Illustrative user groups were developed to shed light on the kinds of archetypical users that may want to use select tools and how they may derive use of each tool. Five user groups and illustrative examples for how they might use tools to answer different types of questions are described in Table 7.
Many valuable, easy-to-use tools exist offering non-climate experts and generalists' opportunities to gain interesting insights into the relationship between climate and small-scale producers and farming systems. Tools allow users to screen for climate risks and quickly identify where more digging or research is needed. These tools provide efficiency benefits, allowing users to streamline tasks and freeing up resources to dig deeper or ask other related questions. The tools also enable generalists to better understand concepts related to climate-smart agriculture, and in particular risk and climate mitigation. Integrated, appropriate use of these tools in development efforts (where relevant) can efficiently improve climate outcomes of projects.
No tool should be used as a standalone resource to comprehensively address climate-smart agriculture as it relates to smallholders. Tools that are meant to be broadly applicable are often limited in context-specific detail and nuance. They can be helpful for enabling users to broadly screen for potential climate-related impacts, assess alternative approaches for climate-relevant goals, and inform sustainability in agricultural supply chains. However, to fully address any program or intervention, a wide range of experts, stakeholders, resources, and customized analyses are needed alongside tools.
Researchers may be able to mine the tools to identify and download relevant datasets to conduct more tailored or bespoke analysis. One of the most important benefits of these tools is that they can point to the right datasets to be used for further exploration. The developers of these tools have spent significant time curating datasets relevant to climate, agriculture, and smallholder farming systems. However, these tools had to make tradeoffs between data coverage and specificity. Some of the tools reviewed here reflect data that is not the most spatially disaggregated (but may be the best available covering a wide geographical area of focus for the tool) or recent; for example, the Aqueduct tool includes MapSPAM crop data from 2010, which is 13 years old at the time of this publication. To maximally benefit from these tools when conducting bespoke analysis, researchers should consider both what data they can mine from these tools and what additional, more spatially and temporally disaggregated datasets (which often exist from individual projects, statistical agency data, or survey data collection) they can combine with the datasets in these tools to jumpstart efforts to produce tailored or bespoke analysis. Researchers should remember that they should not assume the tools’ data is up-to-date or the best-available data source for a given research question.
Tools do not collectively address resilience and adaptation planning very well. There are many tools that do address adaptation planning and resilience, but they tend to be more process oriented (e.g., a series of questions that guide the user through a process). Since adaptation options are highly specific to context—involving multiple factors such as likelihood or severity of hazards, propensity to be negatively impacted (vulnerability), the presence of valued assets (exposure), and details about the social/political/cultural context—they are necessarily less conducive to a stylized model or interactive tool. Nonetheless, the Agricultural Adaptation Atlas (AAA) and CRISP do characterize and display different types of adaptation options, and the AAA and Resilience Atlas incorporate relevant adaptive capacities that may be applicable in modulating climate impacts. The Climate Risk Toolbox includes geospatial data to analyze a target geography’s adaptive capacity. But few other interactive tools attempt to tackle resilience and adaptation in a very actionable way.
Tools could do a better job of estimating the impact of climate on a wide range of specific crops and at a high spatial resolution. Most climate impact tools only model the projected impact of climate on the world’s commonly grown, highly traded staple crops: like wheat, rice, cotton, and soy (e.g., the AgMIP IFPRI Impacts Viewer). Some global staple crops, such as wheat, rice, soy, and cotton, have spatial data at higher resolutions of 30 m × 30 m or general cropland at 10 m × 10 m. Models that use IFPRI’s MapSPAM dataset, such as the Resilience Atlas, GADAS, and Aqueduct, allow the user to explore 42 crops at coarser spatial resolution of 10 km × 10 km. Although the data and methods for estimating the productivity impacts of climate on a wide range of crops is now available and presumably a tool could be built to screen how these crops may become more, or less, impacted or suitable with climate change, such a tool was not identified. Tools estimating GHG emissions tend to have the capacity to be more crop explicit, depending on geography and data available for a specific investment.
Climate-smart agricultural tools generally do not cover a wide range of environmental impacts. Tools tend to focus on the impact of climate on productivity, or the impact of agricultural interventions on GHG emission. Fewer go further to assess how agricultural interventions or climate may impact other environmental outcomes such as biodiversity, soil, and water quality. Cool Farm Tool and the EU Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) Facility’s Land-use Planner include some information regarding biodiversity and environmental impacts. The Aqueduct tool focuses on assessing the impact of agriculture on water related outcomes. Tool outputs, which include biodiversity or environment-specific impacts, tend to require more detailed input data on farm management and geographic information.
There is a plethora of interactive tools that share valuable data relevant to climate change and small-scale farming in low-income countries. Here, a non-exhaustive but thorough search identified 29 interactive and accessible tools out of hundreds that were considered. These tools compile data differently to provide valuable insights and details that can be leveraged in various ways to provide needed information to a wide range of users. The most valuable tools are the ones that not only allow information to be displayed but also provide actionable insights and clear use cases that allow any user to easily access and understand how the tools can inform their actions. While valuable, it is important to remember that these tools are just that - tools. They should always be used in conjunction with other sources of data and information (e.g., additional data sets, expert consultations, literatures reviews, other targeted research) to inform decision-making.
All data underlying the results are available as part of the article and no additional source data are required.
We would like to acknowledge the support and advice we received on concepts and drafts from RTI International colleagues, including Amanda Rose, Amy Rydeen, Micaela Hayes, and others. Additionally, we would like to acknowledge the valuable feedback provided for the draft by Stesha Durante, Steven Prager, and Tess Russo.
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Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?
Partly
Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound?
Yes
Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
Yes
If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
Not applicable
Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility?
No source data required
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results?
Yes
References
1. Rosenstock T, Joshi N, Segnon A, Cramer L, et al.: Decision support tools for agricultural adaptation in Africa. Nature Food. 2024; 5 (3): 186-188 Publisher Full TextCompeting Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Reviewer Expertise: agriculture development, climate change adaptation and mitigation, linking science with policy
Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?
Partly
Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound?
Yes
Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
Yes
If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
Not applicable
Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility?
Yes
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results?
Yes
Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Reviewer Expertise: International agri-food trade, precision and climate-smart agriculture, alternative fuels.
Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?
Yes
Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound?
Yes
Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
Yes
If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
Partly
Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility?
Yes
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results?
No
Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Reviewer Expertise: Climate-smart Agriculture, climate geomatics, Soil respiration, forest carbon stock, water quality, bibliometrics analysis, R - programing language, crop modeling.
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Provide sufficient details of any financial or non-financial competing interests to enable users to assess whether your comments might lead a reasonable person to question your impartiality. Consider the following examples, but note that this is not an exhaustive list:
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