Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a viral infection that affects cloven-hoofed livestock and wildlife. Important livestock hosts of FMD virus are cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, yaks, and water buffalo ( Jamal and Belsham, 2013). The virus, foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), belongs to the genus Aphthovirus and the family Picornaviridae. It is a non-enveloped, single-stranded, positive sense RNA virus of approximately 8.5kb in size. There are seven serotypes of FMDV, namely O, A, C, SAT 1, SAT 2, SAT 3, and Asia 1 ( Jamal and Belsham, 2013). In Nigeria, where the disease is endemic with seasonal outbreaks, the circulating serotypes are O, A, SAT 1 and SAT 2, with serotype O the most prevalent ( FAO, 2021). The disease is characterized by high morbidity and low mortality (except in calves) with devastating economic losses due to the debilitating nature of the disease. The major lesions are vesicles in the oral cavity and hoof resulting in erosion and ulceration in these areas. These lesions lead to hypersalivation, unwillingness to eat, and reluctance to stand or walk in the affected animal causing decreased production.

Globally, the annual economic impact of FMD is estimated at USD 11 billion in endemic settings. The economic impact is most profound among smallholder farmers as the disease threatens their livestock productivity, income, livelihoods and food security ( Alhaji et al., 2020).

To control the disease, inactivated vaccines made from Nigerian-endemic strains have been shown to be effective for protection in cattle against FMD ( Mowat et al., 1975; Lazarus et al., 2012). However, the vaccine is neither readily available nor popularly known among livestock farmers, causing a huge loss especially among smallholder farmers who often lack awareness of the vaccine and its benefits ( FAO, 2012).

The economic impact of FMD can be viewed as direct or indirect, with both affecting the farmers’ returns on investment. Reduced or loss of milk production, mortality, especially in calves, loss of weight and draft power, and reduced livestock market value are the direct impacts ( Senturk and Yalcin, 2005; Barasa et al., 2008; FAO, 2012; Young et al., 2013). Indirect impact is seen in expenditure on disease control through vaccination, diagnostics and surveillance, treatment of secondary bacterial infections, and movement control ( FAO, 2012). Although returns on investment in cases of FMD control (using FMD vaccine) have been seen to be positive, with a benefit-cost ratio of 33.6 as reported by Alhaji et al., (2020), the intentional use of the vaccine is very unpopular among farmers in Nigeria, especially the smallholder farmers who are known to keep more than 10 animals (cattle and small ruminants) ( Peters et al., 2012). The major resultant effect for livestock owners is the embargo on the importation or exportation of meat from animals in FMD-affected areas ( Ezeokoli et al., 1988).

Based on the findings of Alhaji et al. (2020) and Peters et al. (2012) that reported that FMD vaccination is an unpopular practice among smallholder farmers, this study aims to understand the market dynamics of FMD vaccine at the agro-veterinary stores in rural and peri-urban areas, gather information on the challenges faced by agro-veterinary stores and how they can be supported to ultimately ensure that smallholder farmers routinely use FMD vaccine to control the disease in Nigeria. This study is relevant and crucial, for should there be any effective FMD control in Nigeria, these areas with highest concentrations of livestock, which are often neglected, should be the main focal points.

Study areas: We selected a minimum of one state from five out of the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria, between November to December 2023. Most of the states selected are located far away from urban areas within each state. The selected states from each of the five geopolitical zones are found in Table 1 and Figure 1.

Study site: We purposively selected locations relatively distant from the state capital and popular cities within the state. Interviews were conducted at agro-veterinary stores located in rural and peri-urban areas that supply smallholder farmers with animal health products.

Data collection: The questionnaire (Extended Data), composed of both closed and open-ended questions, was uploaded on Kobocollect App ^®. It was read out in-person to participants in the most preferred language (English or local language) by licensed animal health service providers (veterinarians or animal health technologists). Key informant one-to-one interviews were recorded on tape to obtain information on important factors that may not have been captured by the questionnaires, and to make the discussion with the stakeholders as interactive as possible ( Elelu, 2017; Chemuliti et al., 2021). Questionnaires and interviews were conducted in agro-veterinary stores and the location coordinates of each participating agro-veterinary store were recorded by global positioning system (GPS) but all participant details were anonymised.

Sample size: In total, we interviewed 290 agro-veterinary store owners from 35 local government areas of six states of Nigeria. We also conducted 65 oral interviews with the key informants among community leaders, livestock farmers, and agro-veterinary store owners.

Data analysis: The data were entered into Microsoft Excel 2010 (Microsoft Corporation) software for data cleanup, using a licensed version of Microsoft Office Excel, and later exported to IBM SPSS ^® statistics version 25 software (IBM Corp.) for statistical analysis. Chi-square or Fisher’s exact test (as the number counts in some cells were less than five) was used to test the significance of associations between demographic features and business operations using GraphPad Prism 8.4.2. The level of significance was set at a value of p < 0.05.

Ethical consideration: There is no legal requirement in Nigeria for review by an Ethics Committee of such a study. However, since it was decided to aim to publish in Gates Open Research, it was felt that a retrospective review would be appropriate (rather than none at all). Ethical approval for the project, questionnaire, consent forms and other participant information materials was obtained from the University of Ibadan (UI) UCH Ethics Committee of the Institute for Advanced Medical Research and Training (IAMRAT), College of Medicine, University of Ibadan (registration number: NHREC/05/01/2008a; UI/UCH Ethics Committee assigned number: UI/EC/24/0256), dated 08/04/2024 to 07/04/2025.

Of the 290 participants who gave their consent to participate in the study, Adamawa State had the highest number of participants with 49%, while the least was in Ebonyi State with 3% of all participants ( Table 2).

The study aimed to understand the market dynamics of FMD vaccine at the agro-veterinary stores in rural and peri-urban areas, and gather information on the challenges faced by agro-veterinary stores. The structured questionnaire captured data on several areas, including socioeconomics such as gender and education of agro-veterinary owners. It was observed that the proportion of female agro-veterinary store owners (5.5%) was significantly lower than the male store owners (94.5%). This is similar to the finding of Elelu (2017) that reported that among agro-veterinary store owners, 96.3% were male (3.7% female). The slight difference may be due to the state selected in their study (Kwara state) which falls under the north-central part of Nigeria. Furthermore, there were more women owning agro-veterinary stores in the southern region than in the northern region. This may be due to many factors, most notable being religion, cultural background and level of education ( Enfield, 2019). The study found that the highest number of participants with postgraduate certificates was found in Oyo State. This is in contrast with the study that reported that most of the owners of agro-veterinary stores have either primary or no formal education ( Elelu, 2017). This variance may be due to the time the study was conducted or the states of the country where the study was carried out. The observation that more educated individuals (with at least a graduate certificate as the highest educational qualification) are joining the agro-veterinary business in the peri-urban and rural areas is a new development, which coincides with the introduction of training of veterinary paraprofessionals in Nigeria; if well appropriated, this could provide a solution to the common practice of veterinary healthcare delivery by untrained, unprofessional owners of agro-veterinary stores in the rural and peri-urban areas ( Grasswitz et al., 2004; Faramade et al., 2016).

The largest proportion of store owners (41%) were found to have been in the agro-veterinary business operation in the last 1-5 years; this suggests that more people are taking an interest in and starting an agro-veterinary business. We found that there were more stores selling ruminant vaccines alone or with other vaccine types in the northern states than the southern states. Previous studies have shown that agro-veterinary stores would rather procure and sell veterinary drugs to livestock farmers ( Grasswitz et al., 2004; Elelu, 2017) instead of vaccines as there are several limiting factors to the sales of vaccines by these stores in Nigeria, such as unstable power supplies, inadequate cold chain maintenance, and inefficient logistics systems, among other things.

The questionnaire captured data on sources of vaccines and vaccine cold chain. The study found that more than 84% of agro-veterinary stores sourced their vaccine through distributors or marketers, and only a small proportion sourced them from veterinary clinics (15.7%). This finding is consistent with another study that reported that there is limited access to, and availability of, retail outlets such as agro-veterinary stores with a new range of animal health products because they are only supplied by wholesalers ( Elelu, 2017). This is partly as a result of a decline in multi-national manufacturing companies that are relocating their business operations from most African countries, including Nigeria, and partly due to their focus on large-scale commercial companies as their market target ( Grasswitz et al., 2004). The study showed that fewer than half (45.8%) of agro-veterinary outlets always store their vaccines in cold environments. This finding resonates with another study that reported that 61% of agro-veterinary stores could not maintain cold storage of their vaccines ( Chemuliti et al., 2021). Maintenance of the cold chain during storage and logistics of the vaccine to livestock farmers was the main challenge reported (32.5%). This has been reported in previous studies as a challenge to the vaccine delivery system in low-income countries and the sale of effective vaccines in rural and peri-urban areas ( Adeiga and Harry, 2006; Ashok et al., 2017; Chemuliti et al., 2021). For the vaccine to be effective, pure, safe, and potent, cold chains must be maintained to confer protection against infection ( OIE, 2019). Lack of reliable power supply was reported as a constraint. Indeed, unreliable power supply is not unusual as more than a billion people around the world have no access to stable electricity and approximately 85% of them reside in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa ( Babalola et al., 2022). Other challenges listed have been previously reported by researchers who have studied agro-veterinary outlets in African countries, including Nigeria ( Grasswitz et al., 2004; Elelu, 2017; Chemuliti et al., 2021).

There were some limitations in the study. Some places known for security threats and insurgencies were purposely avoided within the states during this study. The sample size of 290 participants was smaller than initially intended.

To commence effective control of FMD in Nigeria, there is a need to improve the sales of vaccines by the agro-veterinary stores located in the rural and peri-urban areas. Many studies have considered the activities of agro-veterinary stores located in rural and peri-urban areas selling drugs, poultry and livestock vaccines, but this study, to the best of our knowledge, is the first report on their sales of FMD vaccine which is an important component of overall livestock disease control and prevention. There is a need to develop a supply chain that deeply entrenches agro-veterinary stores in the rural and peri-urban areas, to provide support in vaccine storage, in the form of solar-powered refrigerators or to establish mobile vaccination centers/veterinary clinics that service livestock farmers in rural and peri-urban areas, and ensure availability and accessibility of FMD vaccine to the farmers in these areas, who are the keepers of the most animal protein in Nigeria.

For a control program to be successful, there is the requirement to be intentional and to plan well-structured education programs, sensitization, and awareness creation campaigns on FMD and its control measures among livestock farmers through qualified agro-veterinary owners.

There is no legal requirement in Nigeria for review by an Ethics Committee of such a study. However, since it was decided to aim to publish in Gates Open Research, it was felt that a retrospective review would be appropriate (rather than none at all). Ethical approval for the project, questionnaire, consent forms and other participant information materials was obtained from the University of Ibadan (UI) UCH Ethics Committee of the Institute for Advanced Medical Research and Training (IAMRAT), College of Medicine, University of Ibadan (registration number: NHREC/05/01/2008a; UI/UCH Ethics Committee assigned number: UI/EC/24/0256), dated 08/04/2024 to 07/04/2025.

Informed written consent was obtained from all participants before the questionnaire was administered.